Who Were Coureurs De Bois

French-Canadian independent fur traders

A coureur des bois in the painting La Vérendrye at the Lake of the Wood, circa 1900–1930

A coureur des bois (French: [kuʁœʁ de bwɑ]; lit. '"runner of the forest"') or coureur de bois (French: [kuʁœʁ də bwɑ]; plural: coureurs de(s) bois) was an contained entrepreneurial French-Canadian trader who travelled in New France and the interior of North America, usually to trade with First Nations peoples by exchanging various European items for furs. Some learned the trades and practices of the indigenous peoples.

These expeditions were part of the start of the fur trade in the Northward American interior. Initially they traded for beaver coats and furs. However, as the market grew, coureurs de bois were trapping and trading prime beavers whose skins were to be felted in Europe.^[i]

Development [edit]

While French settlers had lived and traded aslope Indigenous people since the earliest days of New France, coureurs des bois reached their apex during the second half of the 17th century. After 1681, the independent coureur des bois was gradually replaced by land-sponsored voyageurs, who were workers associated with licensed fur traders. They travelled extensively by canoe. Coureurs des bois lost their importance in the fur trade by the early 18th century. Yet, even while their numbers were dwindling, the coureur des bois developed every bit a symbol of the colony, creating a lasting myth that would continue to define New French republic for centuries.^[2]

Depiction of Samuel de Champlain (1574–1635) past Theophile Hamel (1870)

1610–1630: early explorers and interpreters [edit]

Shortly after founding a permanent settlement at Quebec City in 1608, Samuel de Champlain sought to ally himself with the local native peoples or First Nations. He decided to transport French boys to live among them to learn their languages in order to serve as interpreters, in the hope of persuading the natives to trade with the French rather than with the Dutch, who were active along the Hudson River and Atlantic coast.^[3]

The boys learned native languages, customs, and skills, and tended to digest quickly to their new environments. A twelvemonth later on leaving Étienne Brûlé in 1610, with a Huron tribe, Champlain visited him, and was surprised to find the young man attired completely in native clothing and able to antipodal fluently in the Huron language.^[4]

Early explorers such as Brûlé educated the French colonists on the circuitous trading networks of the natives, served as interpreters, and encouraged the burgeoning fur trade. Between 1610 and 1629, dozens of Frenchmen spent months at a fourth dimension living among the natives. Over time, these early on explorers and interpreters played an increasingly agile part in the fur trade, paving the way for the emergence of the coureurs des bois proper in the mid-17th century.

1649–1681: ascent [edit]

Map of Great Lakes Region of New France, 1688 (by Vincenzo Coronelli 1650–1718)

Radisson & Groseillers Established the Fur Trade in the Bang-up North West, 1662, by Archibald Bruce Stapleton (1917–1950)

Edict of the King of France in 1681, limiting fur trade participation

The term "coureur des bois" is most strongly associated with those who engaged in the fur trade in ways that were considered to be exterior of the mainstream.^[5] Early in the North American fur merchandise era, this term was applied to men who circumvented the normal channels past going deeper into the wilderness to trade.

Traditionally, the government of New France preferred to let the natives supply furs directly to French merchants, and discouraged French settlers from venturing outside the Saint Lawrence valley. By the mid-17th century, Montreal had emerged as the center of the fur trade, hosting a yearly fair in August where natives exchanged their pelts for European goods.^[6] While coureurs des bois never entirely disappeared, they were heavily discouraged by French colonial officials. In 1649, the new governor Louis d'Ailleboust permitted Frenchmen familiar with the wilderness to visit Huron Country to encourage and escort Hurons to Montreal to participate in the trade.^[7] While this did not legally sanction coureurs des bois to merchandise independently with the natives, some historians consider d'Ailleboust'southward encouragement of independent traders to mark the official emergence of the coureurs des bois.^{[seven] [8]}

In the 1660s, several factors resulted in a sudden spike in the number of coureurs des bois. Outset, the population of New France markedly increased during the late 17th century, every bit the colony experienced a boom in immigration between 1667–84.^[9] Of the new engagés (indentured male servants), discharged soldiers, and youthful immigrants from squalid, class-leap Europe arriving in great numbers in the colony, many chose freedom in the life of the coureur des bois. Furthermore, renewed peaceful relations with the Iroquois in 1667 made traveling into the interior of Canada much less perilous for the French colonists.^[10] The companies that had been monopolizing and regulating the fur trade since 1645, the Cent Associés and the Communautés des Habitants, went bankrupt after the Iroquois war.^[eleven] The Compagnie des Indes occidentales, which replaced them, was much less restrictive of internal merchandise, allowing independent merchants to go more than numerous. Finally, a sudden fall in the price of beaver on the European markets in 1664 caused more than traders to travel to the "pays d'en haut", or upper country (the area around the Cracking Lakes), in search of cheaper pelts.^[11] During the mid-1660s, therefore, becoming a coureur des bois became both more than feasible and profitable.

This sudden growth alarmed many colonial officials. In 1680, the intendant Duchesneau estimated there were 8 hundred coureurs des bois, or about 40% of the adult male population.^[12] Reports like that were wildly exaggerated: in reality, even at their zenith coureurs des bois remained a very small per centum of the population of New French republic.

1681–1715: decline [edit]

In 1681, to curb the unregulated business concern of independent traders and their burgeoning profits, French minister of marine Jean-Baptiste Colbert created a organization of licenses for fur traders, known as congés.^[13] Initially, this organization granted 25 annual licenses to merchants traveling inland. The recipients of these licenses came to exist known as "voyageurs" (travelers), who canoed and portaged fur trade goods in the employ of a licensed fur trader or fur trading company. The congé arrangement, therefore, created the voyageur, the legal and respectable counterpart to the coureur des bois. Under the voyageurs, the fur trade began to favor a more organized concern model of the times, including monopolistic ownership and hired labor. From 1681 onwards, therefore, the voyageurs began to eclipse the coureurs des bois, although coureurs des bois connected to merchandise without licenses for several decades.^[13] Post-obit the implementation of the congé system, the number of coureurs des bois dwindled, every bit did their influence within the colony.

Lifestyle [edit]

Skills [edit]

A successful coureur des bois had to possess many skills, including those of businessman and proficient canoeist.^[14] To survive in the Canadian wilderness, coureurs des bois also had to be competent in a range of activities including fishing, snowshoeing and hunting.^[fifteen] As one Jesuit described them, venturing into the wilderness suited "the sort of person who thought nix of roofing five to six hundred leagues past canoe, paddle in paw, or of living off corn and acquit fat for twelve to xviii months, or of sleeping in bark or co-operative cabins".^[16] Equally the life was both physically arduous, succeeding as a coureur was extremely difficult. But the hope of making a profit motivated many, while the promise of gamble and liberty was enough to convince others to become courers.^[17]

Long distance fur trade and canoe travel [edit]

Considering of the lack of roads and the necessity to transport heavy goods and furs, fur trade in the interior of the continent depended on men conducting long-altitude transportation by canoe of fur trade appurtenances, and returning with pelts. Early travel was dangerous and the coureurs des bois, who traded in uncharted territory, had a high mortality rate. Typically, they left Montreal in the spring, as soon equally the rivers and lakes were clear of ice (unremarkably May), their canoes loaded with supplies and goods for trading. The course due west to the richest beaver lands usually went by way of the Ottawa and Mattawa rivers; it required numerous overland portages. Alternatively, some canoes proceeded by style of the upper St. Lawrence River and the lakes, passing by Detroit on the fashion to Michilimackinac or Green Bay. This route had fewer portages, only in times of war, it was more than exposed to Iroquois attacks. The powerful 5 Nations of the Confederacy had territory along the Great Lakes and sought to control their hunting grounds.

Such trading journeys frequently lasted for months and covered thousands of kilometers, with the coureurs des bois sometimes paddling twelve hours a day.^[15] Packing a canoe for such a trip was ofttimes arduous, every bit more than 30 articles were considered essential for a coureur des bois's survival and business organization. He could trade for nutrient, chase, and fish—but merchandise goods such as "broadcloth, linen and wool blankets, ammunition, metal goods (knives, hatchets, kettles), firearms, liquor, gunpowder and sometimes even finished vesture, took up the bulk of space in the canoe."^[18] Nutrient en route needed to be lightweight, practical and non-perishable.

Relationships with the natives [edit]

The business of a coureur des bois required close contact with the indigenous peoples. Native peoples were essential because they trapped the fur-begetting animals (peculiarly beaver) and prepared the skins. Relations betwixt coureurs and natives were not ever peaceful, and could sometimes become violent.^[xix] In full general, trade was made much easier past the two groups maintaining friendly relations. Trade was oftentimes accompanied by reciprocal gift-giving; among the Algonquin and others, exchanging gifts was customary practice to maintain alliances.^[20] Pierre-Esprit Radisson and his companions, for instance, "struck agreeable relations with Natives inland by giving European goods as gifts".^[21]

'Bourgeois' W---r, and His Squaw (A French trapper and a Native American adult female) 1858–1860, by Alfred Jacob Miller (1810–1874)

Furthermore, relations between the coureur de bois and the natives oft included a sexual dimension; marriage à la façon du pays (following local custom) was common between native women and coureurs des bois, and afterwards betwixt native women and voyageurs.^[22] These unions were of benefit to both sides, and in later years, winter partners of major trading companies also took native wives. As wives, ethnic women played a primal role as translators, guides and mediators—becoming "women betwixt".^[23] For one matter, Algonquin communities typically had far more women than men, probable as a result of warfare. The remaining marriages between Algonquins tended to be polygamous, with one hubby marrying two or more women. Sexual relationships with coureurs des bois therefore offered native women an culling to polygamy in a society with few bachelor men.^[24]

To French military machine commanders, who were frequently as well straight involved in the fur trade, such marriages were beneficial in that they improved relations betwixt the French and the natives. Native leaders also encouraged such unions, especially when the couple formed lasting, permanent bonds. Jesuits and some upper-level colonial officials viewed these relationships with disdain and disgust.^[25] French officials preferred coureurs des bois and voyageurs to settle around Quebec Metropolis and Montreal. They considered the lasting relationships with native women to be farther proof of the lawlessness and perversion of the coureurs des bois.^[26]

Myths [edit]

The office and importance of the coureurs des bois have been exaggerated over the course of history. This figure has achieved mythological status, leading to many imitation accounts, and to the coureurs des bois beingness alloyed with "Canadiens" (Canadians).

The myth-making followed 2 paths; initially, people in France judged the colonies according to the fears and apprehensions which they had of the Ancien Régime. If order and discipline were proving difficult to maintain in continental Europe, it seemed impossible that the colonies would fare any ameliorate, and it was presumed things would go even worse.^[ii] Accounts of young men choosing a life where they would "practice cipher", exist "restrained by nil", and live "across the possibility of correction" played into the French aristocracy'due south fears of insubordination^[half-dozen] which only served to confirm their ignorance; and coureurs des bois became allegorical of the colony for those in the urban center.

Pierre François Xavier de Charlevoix (1682–1761)

The myth of the coureurs des bois as representative of the Canadians was stimulated by the writings of 18th-century Jesuit priest F-X. Charlevoix and the 19th-century American historian Francis Parkman; their historical accounts are classified as belonging to popular rather than bookish history.^[27] Charlevoix was especially influential in his writings, because he was a trusted source of information, as he was a Jesuit priest who had journeyed in Canada. But his "historical" work has been criticized by historians for beingness besides "lite" and for relying likewise heavily on other authors' textile (i.east. plagiarizing), rather than his own first-paw account.^[27] Critics of Charlevoix have too noted that in his account, he confuses different periods of time, and therefore does not differentiate between voyageurs and coureurs des bois, misrepresenting the importance of the latter in terms of number and proportion in terms on influence on trading.^[2] But Charlevoix was influential; his work was often cited past other authors, which further propagated the myth of the Canadian as a coureur des bois.

Finally, romans du terroir (rural novels) also added to the myth of the coureurs des bois by featuring them out of proportion to their number and influence. The coureurs des bois were portrayed in such works equally extremely virile, costless-spirited and of untameable natures, ideal protagonists in the romanticized novels of important 19th-century writers such as Chateaubriand, Jules Verne and Fenimore Cooper.^[28]

Notable examples [edit]

Near coureurs des bois were primarily or solely fur-trade entrepreneurs and not individually well known. The near prominent coureurs des bois were also explorers and gained fame as such.

Étienne Brûlé was the first European to see the Great Lakes. He traveled to New France with Samuel de Champlain.^[29]

Jean Nicolet (Nicollet) de Belleborne (Ca. 1598 – ane November 1642) was a French coureur des bois noted for exploring Green Bay in what is at present the U.Due south. land of Wisconsin. Nicolet was born in Normandy, French republic in the late 1590s and moved to New France in 1618. In that same year, he was recruited by Samuel de Champlain, who arranged for him to live with a group of Algonquians, designated as the "Nation of the Isle", to larn native languages and later serve every bit an interpreter.^[30] The natives quickly adopted Nicolet every bit one of their own, even allowing him to attend councils and negotiate treaties. In 1620, Nicolet was sent to make contact with the Nipissing, a grouping of natives who played an important part in the growing fur trade. Later having established a good reputation for himself, Nicolet was sent on an expedition to Dark-green Bay to settle a peace agreement with the natives of that surface area.^[31]

Médard Chouart des Groseilliers (1618–1696) was a French explorer and fur trader in Canada. In the early 1640s, des Groseilliers relocated to Quebec, and began to piece of work around Huronia with the Jesuit missions in that expanse. There he learned the skills of a coureur des bois and in 1653 married his second wife, Margueritte.^[32] Her brother, Pierre-Esprit Radisson, also became a notable effigy in the fur trade and is ofttimes mentioned in the same breath as des Groseilliers. Radisson and des Grosseilliers would also travel and merchandise together, as they did throughout the 1660s and 1670s. Together, they explored westward into previously unknown territories in search of trade. Having incurred legal issues in New French republic because of their trade, the ii explorers went to French republic in an attempt to rectify their legal state of affairs. When this endeavor failed, the pair turned to the English language. Through this liaison with the English and thank you to their considerable noesis and feel in the expanse, the pair are credited with the establishment of the Hudson'southward Bay Company.^[33]

Pierre-Esprit Radisson (1636–1710) was a French-Canadian fur trader and explorer. His life every bit explorer and trader is crucially intertwined with that of his blood brother-in-law, Médard des Groseilliers. Radisson came to New French republic in 1651, settling in Trois-Rivières.^[34] That aforementioned year, he was captured by the Mohawks while duck hunting. Although two of his companions were killed during this exchange, the natives spared Radisson's life and adopted him.^[35] Through this adoption, Radisson learned native languages that would later on serve him well equally an interpreter. He worked throughout the 1660s and 1670s with his brother-in-law, des Groseilliers, on various trade and exploration voyages into the west of the continent. Much of Radisson's life during this menstruum is wrapped up in the story of des Groseilliers. Together they are credited with the establishment and shaping of the Hudson's Bay Company.^[36]

Daniel Greysolon, Sieur du Lhut (1639–1710) was a French soldier and explorer who is the first European known to have visited the expanse where the city of Duluth, Minnesota is at present located and the headwaters of the Mississippi River near Chiliad Rapids.^[37]

Jacques La Ramee (1784–1821)

Pierre de La Vérendrye (1685–1749)

Louis-Joseph de La Vérendrye and his three brothers, the sons of the Vérendrye mentioned above (1717–1761)

François Baby (1733–1820)

Jacques Infant (1731–1789)

Horace Bélanger (1836–1892)

Jean-Marie Ducharme (1723–1807)

Dominique Ducharme (1765–1853)

Luc de la Corne (1711–1784)

Jacques de Noyon (1668–1745)

Martin Chartier (1655–1718) accompanied Joliet and LaSalle, became an outlaw, and eventually traded for furs in Tennessee, Ohio and Pennsylvania.

Peter Bisaillon (1662–1742)

Jacques Le Tort (1651–1702)

James Le Tort (1675-1742)

In literature, television, and film [edit]

The 1910 Victor Herbert operetta Naughty Marietta featured the male-chorus marching song Tramp Tramp Tramp (Along the Highway), which included the words, "Blazing trails along the byway / Couriers de Bois are nosotros" [sic]. (Some later on versions change Rida Johnson Young'south lyric to "For men of war are we.")

In James A. Michener's 1974 historical novel Centennial and the 1978–1979 NBC television mini-serial of the aforementioned name, the colourful, French Canadian or French Metis, coureur des bois, from Montreal, Quebec, Canada, named Pasquinel, was introduced as an early frontier mount homo and trapper, in 1795 Colorado, Spanish Upper Louisiana Territory of Mexico, now the present-mean solar day state of Colorado. Pasquinel was portrayed in the miniseries past American Telly thespian Robert Conrad. The fictional character of Pasquinel was loosely based on the lives of French-speaking fur traders Jacques La Ramee and Ceran St. Vrain.

In a 1990 skit called "Trappers", the Canadian comedy troupe The Kids in the Hall depict two trappers, Jacques (Dave Foley) and François (Kevin McDonald), canoeing through high-ascension offices and cubicles to trap businessmen wearing designer Italian suits as a parody of this moment in Canadian colonial history.^[38]

The Revenant (2015), directed by Alejandro González Iñárritu, depicts a group of uncharacteristically violent, anti-Indian coureurs des bois in North Dakota, which was contrary to these trappers, who embraced the culture and way of life of Native Americans.

The 2016 telly serial Frontier chronicles the North American fur trade in late 1700s Canada, and follows Declan Harp, a part-Irish, role-Cree outlaw who is campaigning to breach the Hudson's Bay Company's monopoly on the fur trade in Canada. Several fictional coureurs des bois are featured in this realistic activeness-drama filmed generally on location in Newfoundland and Labrador, Nova Scotia, and Ontario, Canada.^[39]

Meet also [edit]

• European colonization of the Americas
• Canadian canoe routes

References [edit]

1. ^ Daschuk, James (2013). Clearing the Plains: Affliction, Politics of Starvation, and the Loss of Aboriginal Life. University of Regina Printing. p. 15. ISBN978-0-8897-7296-0.
2. ^ ^{a b c} Wien, Thomas (2005). Mémoires de Nouvelle-France: De France En Nouvelle-France. Rennes: Presses Universitaires de Rennes. pp. 179–186.
3. ^ Jacquin, P. (1996). Les Indiens Blancs: Français et Indiens en Amérique du Nord, XVIe-XVIIIe siècle . Montréal: Libre Expression. pp. 41. ISBN9782891116633.
4. ^ Jacquin, P. (1996). Les Indiens Blancs: Français et Indiens en Amérique du Nord, XVIe-XVIIIe siècle . Montréal: Libre Expression. pp. 38. ISBN9782891116633.
5. ^ Eccles, Westward.J. (1983) [1969]. The Canadian Frontier 1534–1760 (revised ed.). Albuquerque: University of New United mexican states Press. ISBN0-8263-0705-1 . Retrieved October five, 2015.
6. ^ ^{a b} Greer, Allan (1997). The people of New French republic. Toronto: Academy of Toronto Press. p. 53.
7. ^ ^{a b} Jacquin, P. (1996). Les Indiens blancs: Français et Indiens en Amérique du Nord, XVIe-XVIIIe siècle . Montréal: Libre Expression. pp. 105. ISBN9782891116633.
8. ^ Lancotôt, Guylaine (1997). A history of Canada. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. pp. 248–249.
9. ^ Greer, Allan (1997). The people of New France. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. p. 18.
10. ^ White, Richard (1991). The Center Ground: Indians, Empires, and Republics in the Great Lakes Region, 1650–1815 . Cambridge: Cambridge University Printing. pp. 29.
11. ^ ^{a b} Dechêne, Louise (1992). Habitants and Merchants in seventeenth-century Montreal . Quebec: McGill-Queen's University Press. pp. 74. ISBN9780773561724.
12. ^ Colby, Charles W. (1908). Canadian types of the old government:1608–1698. New York: H. Holt and Co. pp. 193.
13. ^ ^{a b} Podruchny, Carolyn (2006). Making the voyageur world: Travellers and traders in the North American fur trade . Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press. pp. 22. ISBN9780803287907.
14. ^ "The Coureur de Bois". The Chronicles of America . Retrieved February xi, 2012.
15. ^ ^{a b} "Coureur de Bois: Backbone and Canoes". Exploration, the Fur Trade and the Hudson Bay Company. Canadiana.org. Archived from the original on February 27, 2015. Retrieved October 5, 2015.
16. ^ Dechêne, Louise (1992). Habitants and Merchants in seventeenth-century Montreal . Quebec: McGill-Queen's Academy Press. pp. 122. ISBN9780773561724.
17. ^ Jacquin, P. (1996). Les Indiens blancs: Français et Indiens en Amérique du Nord, XVIe-XVIIIe siècle . Montréal: Libre Expression. pp. 136. ISBN9782891116633.
18. ^ Volo, James Thou.; Volo, Dorothy Denneen (2002). Daily Life on the Quondam Colonial Borderland. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press. pp. 176–177. Retrieved Oct 5, 2015. .
19. ^ White, Richard (1991). The middle ground: Indians, empires, and republics in the Great Lakes region, 1650–1815 . Cambridge: Cambridge University Printing. pp. 110.
20. ^ White, Richard (1991). The Middle Footing: Indians, Empires, and Republics in the Bang-up Lakes Region, 1650–1815 . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 107.
21. ^ Colpitts, George (2002). "'Animated like Us by Commercial Interests': Commercial Ethnology and Fur Trade Descriptions in New France, 1660–1760". Canadian Historical Review. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. 83 (3): 305–337. doi:10.3138/CHR.83.3.305. S2CID 162210581.
22. ^ Bergeron, Louis (April vii, 2011). "Tuberculosis strain spread by the fur trade reveals stealthy arroyo of epidemics, say Stanford researchers". Stanford University News . Retrieved February 27, 2012.
23. ^ Van Kirk, Sylvia (1977). "'Women in Between': Indian Women in Fur Trade Club in Western Canada". Historical Papers. Canadian Historical Association. 12 (1): 42. doi:10.7202/030819ar.
24. ^ White, Richard (1991). The Centre Footing: Indians, Empires, and Republics in the Great Lakes Region, 1650–1815 . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 65.
25. ^ Jacquin, P. (1996). Les Indiens blancs: Français et Indiens en Amérique du Nord, XVIe-XVIIIe siècle . Montréal: Libre Expression. pp. 164. ISBN9782891116633.
26. ^ White, Richard (1991). The Centre Ground: Indians, Empires, and Republics in the Great Lakes Region, 1650–1815 . Cambridge: Cambridge Academy Press. pp. 70.
27. ^ ^{a b} de Charlevoix, François-Xavier (1994). Periodical d'un voyage fait par ordre ru roi dans l'Amérique septentrionale. Montréal: Les Presses de l'Université de Montréal.
28. ^ Gagnon, Serge (1982). Quebec and its Historians 1840 to 1920 . Montreal: Harvest House. pp. 87. ISBN9780887722134.
29. ^ Jurgens, Olga (1979) [1966]. "Brûlé, Étienne". In Brown, George Williams (ed.). Dictionary of Canadian Biography. Vol. I (1000–1700) (online ed.). University of Toronto Press. Retrieved Oct 5, 2015.
30. ^ Butterfield, 28^{[ commendation needed ]}
31. ^ Hamelin, Jean (1979) [1966]. "Nicollet de Belleborne, Jean". In Brown, George Williams (ed.). Dictionary of Canadian Biography. Vol. I (1000–1700) (online ed.). University of Toronto Press. Retrieved October v, 2015.
32. ^ Caesars, 39^{[ citation needed ]}
33. ^ Fournier 278^{[ citation needed ]}
34. ^ Nute, 43^{[ citation needed ]}
35. ^ Radisson^{[ commendation needed ]}
36. ^ Nute, Grace Lee (1979) [1969]. "Radisson, Pierre-Esprit". In Hayne, David (ed.). Dictionary of Canadian Biography. Vol. II (1701–1740) (online ed.). University of Toronto Printing. Retrieved October v, 2015.
37. ^ Zoltvany, Yves F. (1979) [1969]. "Greysolon Dulhut, Daniel". In Hayne, David (ed.). Dictionary of Canadian Biography. Vol. II (1701–1740) (online ed.). University of Toronto Printing. Retrieved October 5, 2015.
38. ^ Nerdist (2013-02-02), TRAPPER – Kids in the Hall, archived from the original on 2013-02-04, retrieved 2018-04-24
39. ^ "That's a wrap! Borderland finishes filming in Newfoundland". CBC News. Archived from the original on 2017-03-01. Retrieved 2017-03-01 .

Further reading [edit]

• Brownish, Craig, editor. The Illustrated History of Canada. Toronto: Lester & Orpen Dennys Ltd., 1987. ISBN 0-88619-147-five.
• Dechêne, L. Habitants and merchants in seventeenth-century Montreal. Montreal, Que: McGill-Queen'southward University Printing, 1992.
• Jacquin, P. Les Indiens blancs: Français et Indiens en Amérique du Nord, XVIe-XVIIIe siècle. Montréal: Libre expression, 1996.
• Podruchny, Carolyn. Making the Voyageur World : Travelers and Traders in the North American Fur Merchandise. Toronto : University of Toronto Printing, 2006. ISBN 9780802094285.

External links [edit]

• Canadian Vignettes: Voyageurs. A Film Board of Canada vignette
• Illinois Brigade, voyageur educators out of the midwest

Who Were Coureurs De Bois,

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coureur_des_bois

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